NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 – Through the Eyes of Travellers

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 explains how foreign travellers described Indian society between the 10th and 17th centuries. Students should refer to the official NCERT website at for authentic textbooks and syllabus updates. In NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5, students learn how the accounts of travellers provide valuable historical information about social customs, economy, religion and daily life in medieval India.

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 focuses on three important travellers: Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta and Francois Bernier. Their writings help historians understand the structure of Indian society during different historical periods. Al-Biruni wrote the famous Kitab-ul-Hind and described Indian culture, religion and the caste system during the 11th century. Ibn Battuta, a traveller from Morocco, visited India during the reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE) and recorded his experiences in his travel account Rihla.

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 also explains the observations of Francois Bernier, a French physician who visited India during the Mughal period. Bernier compared Indian society with European society and discussed issues such as land ownership, social hierarchy and political administration. Through the writings of these travellers, the chapter helps students understand how outsiders viewed the social, cultural and economic conditions of India. Understanding NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 is important for CBSE board exams and competitive exams such as UPSC and BPSC, where questions related to travellers’ accounts and medieval Indian society are frequently asked.

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1. Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind

• Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) was a famous scholar born in Khwarizm (present-day Uzbekistan), which was an important centre of learning in Central Asia. He received a high level of education and became proficient in several languages such as Arabic, Persian, Syriac, Hebrew and Sanskrit, which helped him study different cultures and intellectual traditions.
• In 1017 CE, when Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni (998–1030 CE) invaded Khwarizm, many scholars and poets were taken to Ghazni (present-day Afghanistan), including Al-Biruni. Although he initially arrived there as a hostage, he gradually developed a liking for the city and spent most of his life in Ghazni, where he continued his scholarly work until his death at about 70 years of age.
• During his stay in Ghazni, Al-Biruni developed a strong interest in India, especially in Indian religion, philosophy, astronomy, mathematics and medicine. His curiosity was influenced by the fact that several Sanskrit scientific and philosophical texts had already been translated into Arabic since the eighth century, creating intellectual links between the Islamic world and India.
• After Punjab became part of the Ghaznavid Empire, contact between Central Asian scholars and the local Indian population increased. Al-Biruni spent many years in the company of Brahmana priests and scholars, learning Sanskrit and studying important religious and philosophical texts, which helped him understand Indian traditions in depth.
• Al-Biruni probably travelled extensively in Punjab and parts of northern India, observing the social life, customs, beliefs and intellectual traditions of the people. These experiences later formed the basis of his detailed work on Indian society.
• Travel writing was already an accepted part of Arabic literature during this period. Such works described regions stretching from the Sahara Desert in Africa to the River Volga in northern Eurasia, and Al-Biruni’s writings on India became an important contribution to this broader tradition of documenting different societies.
• Because of his knowledge of languages, Al-Biruni translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic, including Patanjali’s work on grammar. For his Brahmana scholarly friends, he also translated the works of the Greek mathematician Euclid into Sanskrit, showing a remarkable exchange of knowledge between different civilizations.
• Al-Biruni clearly explained the objective of his work: he wanted his writings to serve as a guide for those who wished to discuss religious ideas with Hindus and as a reliable source of information for those who wanted to interact with Indian society, making his work one of the earliest systematic studies of India by a foreign scholar.

1.1 From Khwarizm to the Punjab

• Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) was born in Khwarizm (modern Uzbekistan), which during the 10th–11th centuries was a major centre of intellectual activity and scholarship in Central Asia. He received the best education available at the time, studying subjects such as astronomy, mathematics, philosophy and languages.
• He was highly skilled in several languages including Arabic, Persian, Syriac, Hebrew and Sanskrit. Although he did not know Greek, he studied the works of Greek philosophers such as Plato through Arabic translations, which broadened his understanding of classical knowledge traditions.
• In 1017 CE, Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni invaded Khwarizm and captured many scholars and intellectuals. Al-Biruni was taken to Ghazni (in present-day Afghanistan) along with other scholars and poets.
• Initially he reached Ghazni as a captive, but over time he adapted to his new surroundings and began working there as a scholar. He spent most of his life in Ghazni, where he continued his intellectual pursuits and eventually died at the age of about 70 years.
• During this period, Ghazni had become an important centre of learning and political power under the rule of Mahmud of Ghazni, attracting scholars from various regions. This environment exposed Al-Biruni to diverse intellectual influences.
• After Punjab became part of the Ghaznavid Empire, interaction between Central Asian scholars and Indian scholars increased. These contacts encouraged Al-Biruni to explore Indian society and intellectual traditions more deeply.
• Al-Biruni spent many years with Brahmana scholars, learning Sanskrit and studying Indian religious, philosophical and scientific texts. Although his exact travel route is not clearly known, historians believe that he travelled widely in Punjab and northern India during this period.

1.2 The Kitab-ul-Hind

• Al-Biruni wrote his famous book called Kitab-ul-Hind (also known as “Tahqiq-i-Hind”) in the Arabic language, with the aim of explaining Indian society, culture, religion and knowledge systems to readers outside the subcontinent.
• The book is a large and detailed work consisting of about 80 chapters, covering a wide range of topics such as religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, alchemy, manners and customs, social life, laws, iconography, weights and measures and metrology (science of measurement).
• The language of Kitab-ul-Hind is simple and clear, which made it easier for readers in the Islamic world to understand the complex traditions of India.
• In most chapters, Al-Biruni followed a systematic structure: he raised a question, then explained the topic using Sanskritic sources and traditions, and finally compared Indian ideas with those of other cultures, especially the Islamic and Greek traditions.
• Modern scholars believe that this logical and almost geometric structure of the book reflected Al-Biruni’s training in mathematics and scientific thinking, which influenced the organized way in which he presented information.
• Al-Biruni relied heavily on Sanskrit texts for his study of India, and he carefully analysed these texts to understand Hindu religious beliefs, philosophical ideas and social practices.
• His book was probably written for readers living along the frontiers of the Indian subcontinent, particularly those in the Islamic world who wished to understand India’s culture and traditions.
• Although Al-Biruni appreciated Indian intellectual traditions, he was also critical of certain aspects of Indian society, and he attempted to present his observations in a balanced and analytical manner, making Kitab-ul-Hind an important historical source for understanding early medieval Indian society.

2. Ibn Battuta’s Rihla

• Ibn Battuta (1304–1377 CE) was a famous traveller from Tangier (Morocco) who visited India in the 14th century during the reign of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE) of the Delhi Sultanate.
• His travel account called “Rihla” (Book of Travels) was written in Arabic and provides valuable information about the social and cultural life of India in the medieval period.
• Ibn Battuta belonged to an educated family of Islamic scholars trained in Islamic law (Shari‘a) and therefore received strong literary and scholarly education.
• He believed that knowledge gained through travel and personal experience was more valuable than knowledge obtained only from books.
• The Rihla records his observations about people, customs, rulers, cities and everyday life, making it an important historical source for the Delhi Sultanate period.
• His account often highlighted unusual customs and unfamiliar objects, which helped readers understand distant regions such as India and China.

2.1 An early globe-trotter

• Ibn Battuta left Tangier in 1325 CE at the age of 22, beginning a journey that lasted almost 30 years.
• Before coming to India, he travelled widely in Mecca, Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman and East Africa.
• Travelling through Central Asia, he reached Sind in 1333 CE and then moved towards Delhi via Multan and Uch.
• He was attracted to India because of the reputation of Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq as a generous patron of scholars.
• The Sultan appointed Ibn Battuta as the Qazi (judge) of Delhi, where he served for several years.
• In 1342 CE, he was appointed as the Sultan’s envoy to China, after which he travelled through Malabar, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Bengal, Assam and Sumatra.

2.2 The “enjoyment of curiosities”

• After returning to Morocco around 1354 CE, the Moroccan ruler ordered Ibn Battuta’s travel experiences to be written down.
• A scholar named Ibn Juzayy recorded the narrative that Ibn Battuta dictated about his journeys.
• The book described the cities he visited, rulers he met, scholars and saints he encountered during his travels.
• The account aimed to provide knowledge as well as entertainment to readers.
• Ibn Battuta often highlighted strange or unusual customs, objects and practices, which fascinated readers in distant lands.
• His travelogue inspired later travellers such as Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi and Mahmud Wali Balkhi who also wrote about their journeys.

3. François Bernier: A Doctor with a Difference

• François Bernier (1620–1688 CE) was a French physician and traveller who visited India in the seventeenth century during the rule of the Mughal Empire, mainly in the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan (1628–1658 CE) and Aurangzeb (1658–1707 CE).
• He stayed in India for about 12 years (1656–1668 CE) and travelled widely across regions such as Delhi, Agra, Kashmir and Bengal, closely observing Mughal administration and society.
• Bernier served as a personal physician to Mughal nobles, especially Prince Dara Shukoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, which allowed him to observe the Mughal court and political life closely.
• He wrote detailed travel accounts describing Indian society, economy, administration and culture, which later became widely read in Europe.
• His writings were circulated in France and other European countries, shaping European understanding of Mughal India.
• Bernier’s works became influential because they provided comparisons between Indian society and European society, which attracted great interest among European readers.

3.1 Comparing “East” and “West”

• François Bernier often compared India with Europe, presenting the Mughal Empire as very different from European societies.
• One of his major arguments was that private ownership of land did not exist in Mughal India, as he believed that all land belonged to the Mughal emperor.
• According to Bernier, this system discouraged agricultural improvement and economic progress, because peasants and landholders had little incentive to invest in land.
• He also believed that the absence of private property created poverty among peasants and artisans, while the ruling class enjoyed wealth and luxury.
• Bernier used these comparisons to argue that European societies were more progressive, while he described the East as economically and socially stagnant.
• Modern historians believe that Bernier’s views were oversimplified and sometimes inaccurate, but his writings remain an important source for understanding European perceptions of Mughal India.

4. Making Sense of an Alien World: Al-Biruni and the Sanskritic Tradition

• Al-Biruni tried to understand Indian society and culture by carefully studying Sanskrit texts and the ideas of Brahmana scholars, which he considered essential for understanding Indian traditions.
• He realised that the beliefs, customs and social practices of India were very different from those of the Islamic world, and therefore required careful study and explanation.
• To interpret this unfamiliar society, Al-Biruni relied mainly on Sanskrit religious and philosophical texts, which he translated and analysed.
• His work attempted to explain Indian religion, philosophy, social practices and intellectual traditions to readers outside the subcontinent.
• By comparing Indian traditions with Greek and Islamic intellectual traditions, he tried to make the ideas of India understandable for his readers.

4.1 Overcoming barriers to understanding

• Al-Biruni identified several barriers that made it difficult for foreigners to understand Indian society, especially differences in language, religion and cultural practices.
• One major barrier was the Sanskrit language, which most foreigners could not understand and which limited access to Indian scholarly texts.
• Another difficulty was the religious and cultural differences between Hindus and Muslims, which created misunderstandings between the two societies.
• Al-Biruni attempted to overcome these barriers by learning Sanskrit and spending long periods with Brahmana scholars, studying their texts and traditions.
• He translated several Sanskrit works into Arabic to make Indian knowledge accessible to readers in the Islamic world.
• Through this effort, he tried to present Indian culture and beliefs in a clear and systematic manner.

4.2 Al-Biruni’s description of the caste system

• Al-Biruni described the caste system of India based mainly on Brahmanical texts, which explained the division of society into four varnas.
• These four main social groups were Brahmana (priests), Kshatriya (warriors), Vaishya (traders) and Shudra (servants).
• According to the Brahmanical texts studied by Al-Biruni, each varna had its own duties, social status and occupations.
• He noted that social status and occupation were determined by birth, which created strict social divisions within Indian society.
• Al-Biruni also mentioned that people considered outside the four varnas were often treated as socially inferior and excluded from many social activities.
• He compared the Indian caste system with social divisions in other societies, noting similarities with certain forms of social hierarchy in other cultures, although the Indian system was more rigid.

5. Ibn Battuta and the Excitement of the Unfamiliar

• When Ibn Battuta arrived in India in the 14th century, the subcontinent was connected to a large global network of trade and communication extending from China in the east to North Africa and Europe in the west.
• He travelled through many regions and interacted with rulers, scholars, merchants and ordinary people, recording their customs and everyday practices.
• The cities he visited had cosmopolitan cultures, where people speaking languages such as Arabic, Persian and Turkish exchanged ideas and information.
• Ibn Battuta wrote about saints, rulers, scholars and common people, often highlighting stories that fascinated his readers.
• He was particularly interested in objects, foods and customs that were unfamiliar to people in the Islamic world.
• By describing these unusual aspects in detail, he tried to make distant lands appear interesting and understandable to his audience.

5.1 The coconut and the paan

• Ibn Battuta described unfamiliar plants and food items found in India so that readers in the Islamic world could understand them easily.
• He explained the coconut tree, comparing it to a date palm, but noted that instead of dates it produced large nuts.
• He described the coconut fruit as resembling a human head with two eyes and a mouth, and noted that its fibre was used to make ropes and cables for ships.
• Ibn Battuta also described paan (betel leaves), which were widely consumed in India.
• According to him, people chewed betel leaves along with areca nut and lime, which freshened the mouth and was considered a common social habit.
• These descriptions helped readers imagine new plants, foods and customs that were unknown in many other parts of the world.

5.2 Ibn Battuta and Indian cities

• Ibn Battuta described Indian cities as large and prosperous, filled with markets, temples, mosques and densely populated streets.
• Cities were important centres of trade, crafts and administration, attracting merchants, artisans and scholars from many regions.
• He noted the presence of vibrant bazaars and markets, where a wide variety of goods were bought and sold.
• Many cities were connected to major trade routes and ports, which helped expand commerce within India and with foreign regions.
• Urban centres also had diverse populations, including merchants, scholars, religious leaders and artisans.
• These observations show that Indian cities were economically active and socially diverse during the Delhi Sultanate period.

5.3 A unique system of communication

• Ibn Battuta was impressed by the efficient communication system of the Delhi Sultanate, which allowed messages and information to travel quickly across long distances.
• The state maintained two kinds of postal systems, one using mounted horsemen and another using runners who carried messages on foot.
• The system worked through relay stations placed at regular distances, where messengers would pass the message to the next runner or horseman.
• Because of this organised network, news and official orders could travel very rapidly from one part of the empire to another.
• Ibn Battuta observed that this communication system was so efficient that information often travelled faster than ordinary travellers moving along the same routes.
• This postal network helped the Delhi Sultanate rulers maintain administrative control over distant regions of the empire.

6. Bernier and the “Degenerate” East

• François Bernier used the phrase “degenerate East” to describe what he believed were weaknesses in the political and economic system of Mughal India.
• He compared the conditions in India with those in Europe, arguing that the Mughal system prevented economic progress and social development.
• Bernier believed that excessive power of the emperor and nobles created instability in society and discouraged long-term investments in agriculture and trade.
• His writings presented the Mughal Empire as economically stagnant, in contrast to what he viewed as the progressive societies of Europe.
• These comparisons strongly influenced European ideas about Asian societies during the seventeenth century.
• However, modern historians argue that Bernier’s conclusions were often exaggerated and based on limited understanding of Indian social realities.

6.1 The question of landownership

• Bernier argued that all land in Mughal India legally belonged to the emperor, and that peasants or landlords did not possess private ownership rights over land.
• According to him, this system discouraged agricultural improvement, because cultivators feared that their land could be taken away by the state or powerful nobles.
• He believed that the absence of private property rights created insecurity among peasants and reduced incentives to invest in farming.
• Bernier also claimed that this situation led to poverty among peasants and decline in agricultural productivity.
• He used this argument to contrast Mughal India with Europe, where he believed that private landownership encouraged economic development.
• Later historians have pointed out that Bernier’s view was oversimplified, as various forms of land rights and local control existed within the Mughal agrarian system.

6.2 A more complex social reality

• François Bernier described Indian towns as weak and dependent on the Mughal imperial court, but this view was oversimplified.
• In reality, India had different types of towns such as manufacturing towns, trading towns, port towns and pilgrimage centres.
• These towns reflected the prosperity of merchant communities and professional groups.
• Merchants formed community organisations called mahajans in western India, led by a chief known as the sheth.
• In cities like Ahmedabad, the head of the merchant community was called the nagarsheth.
• Urban society included many professionals such as physicians (hakim or vaid), teachers (pundit or mulla), lawyers (wakil), painters and musicians.

7. Women, Slaves, Sati and Labourers

• Travellers like Ibn Battuta and François Bernier wrote about the status and condition of women in medieval India.
• Slavery existed, and slaves were often bought and sold in markets or given as gifts among nobles and rulers.
• Ibn Battuta noted that Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq sometimes rewarded people with large sums of money and slaves.
• Some female slaves were trained in music and dance and performed in royal ceremonies.
• Slaves were widely used for domestic labour, including carrying people in palanquins (dola).
• Travellers also described the practice of sati, where a widow was expected to burn herself on her husband’s funeral pyre, though some cases involved force.
• Women also contributed significantly to agriculture, crafts and trade, and women from merchant families sometimes took part in commercial activities.

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 provides valuable insights into medieval Indian society through the observations of foreign travellers. Studying NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 helps students understand how historians use travel accounts as historical sources to reconstruct information about culture, economy, religion and social structure.

A detailed study of NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 also highlights how different travellers interpreted Indian society based on their own cultural background and experiences. Their writings provide important historical evidence about political systems, urban life and social traditions of the time. Mastering NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 strengthens preparation for topics related to medieval Indian history and cultural interactions.

Continue reading NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 6 – Bhakti–Sufi Traditions: Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts to understand the development of devotional movements, the role of saints and the transformation of religious traditions in medieval India.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 about?
NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 explains the accounts of foreign travellers such as Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta and Francois Bernier and their observations about Indian society, culture and economy.

Q2. Why is NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 important for exams?
NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 is important because questions related to travellers’ accounts, medieval society and Mughal administration frequently appear in CBSE and UPSC exams.

Q3. Who were the main travellers discussed in NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5?
The main travellers discussed in NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 are Al-Biruni, Ibn Battuta and Francois Bernier.

Q4. What is Kitab-ul-Hind mentioned in NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5?
Kitab-ul-Hind is a book written by Al-Biruni that describes Indian religion, philosophy, society and culture.

Q5. Does NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 connect with the next chapter?
Yes, NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 5 connects with Chapter 6, which explains the Bhakti and Sufi movements and the transformation of religious traditions in medieval India.

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