NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 – Kings and Chronicles: The Mughal Courts

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 explains the political structure and court culture of the Mughal Empire during the 16th and 17th centuries. Students should refer to the official NCERT website at for authentic textbooks and syllabus updates. In NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9, students learn how Mughal rulers used royal chronicles, court rituals and administrative systems to strengthen their authority and maintain control over a vast empire.

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 discusses how Mughal emperors encouraged the production of official historical chronicles that recorded the achievements and policies of the rulers. Important texts such as the Akbarnama written by Abu’l Fazl and the Badshah Nama written by Abdul Hamid Lahori provide detailed information about court life, political events and imperial administration. The chapter also explains how Persian became the official language of Mughal administration, replacing Turkish as the main language used in royal records and literature.

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 also examines the ideology of Mughal kingship, including ideas such as divine kingship, just sovereignty and universal peace (sulh-i kul) promoted by Emperor Akbar (1556–1605). The chapter further explores the functioning of the Mughal court, imperial household and administrative officials, including the mansabdari system used to organise ranks and responsibilities of nobles. It also highlights the Mughal Empire’s relations with neighbouring powers such as the Safavid Empire, Ottoman Empire and European missionaries. Understanding NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 is important for CBSE board exams and competitive exams such as UPSC and BPSC, where questions related to Mughal administration, court culture and political ideology frequently appear.

For structured preparation of NCERT Class 9–12 for UPSC, BPSC and State PCS examinations, strengthen your basics with our complete NCERT Book Notes PDF for Class 9-12, available inside the NCERT foundation course level-2.

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1. The Mughals and Their Empire

• The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (1526 CE) after his victory over Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat (1526), marking the beginning of Mughal rule in the Indian subcontinent.
• Babur and his successors were descendants of two powerful Central Asian lineages – from Genghis Khan (through his mother) and Timur (through his father), which gave them strong claims to political authority.
• The Mughal rulers who consolidated and expanded the empire were Babur (1526–1530), Humayun (1530–1540; restored 1555–1556), Akbar (1556–1605), Jahangir (1605–1627), Shah Jahan (1628–1658) and Aurangzeb (1658–1707).
• The empire gradually expanded to include large parts of North India, Central India, the Deccan and parts of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan, becoming one of the largest and most powerful empires of the early modern world.
• The Mughal state depended on a well-organised administrative system, strong military power and efficient revenue collection, which enabled it to govern a vast territory.
• Mughal rulers also promoted art, architecture, literature and culture, leading to the construction of famous monuments such as the Red Fort (Delhi), Taj Mahal (Agra) and Fatehpur Sikri.
• The Mughal court became an important centre of political authority, cultural patronage and historical writing, where official historians recorded the achievements of the rulers in royal chronicles.

2. The Production of Chronicles

• The Mughal emperors encouraged the writing of official histories, known as chronicles, which recorded the achievements, administration and political events of their reigns.
• These chronicles were usually written by court historians and scholars who were closely associated with the royal court.
• The purpose of these texts was not only to record history but also to present the Mughal rulers as powerful, just and divinely guided kings.
• Mughal chronicles were written mainly in Persian, which was the official language of administration and culture in the Mughal Empire.
• These texts provided detailed information about court ceremonies, military campaigns, administrative policies and social life during the Mughal period.
• Important Mughal chronicles include the Akbarnama written by Abu’l Fazl during the reign of Emperor Akbar (1556–1605) and the Badshah Nama written by Abdul Hamid Lahori during the reign of Shah Jahan (1628–1658).

2.1 From Turkish to Persian

• The early Mughal rulers were originally from Central Asia, where their cultural traditions were strongly influenced by the Turkish language and Turko-Mongol heritage.
• Babur (r. 1526–1530) wrote his famous memoir Baburnama in the Turki (Chagatai Turkish) language, reflecting his Central Asian background.
• After the establishment of the Mughal Empire in India, Persian gradually replaced Turkish as the main language of administration, literature and court culture.
• This shift occurred mainly during the reign of Akbar (1556–1605), when Persian became the official language of governance and historical writing.
• Persian was already widely used in West Asia and Central Asia, and its adoption helped connect the Mughal court with broader Islamic intellectual and literary traditions.
• As a result, most Mughal chronicles and administrative records were written in Persian, which became the dominant language of Mughal political culture.

2.2 The making of manuscripts

• Mughal chronicles were preserved in the form of handwritten manuscripts, which were carefully prepared by skilled scribes and calligraphers.
• These manuscripts were written on fine quality paper using beautiful calligraphy, and many copies were produced for the royal library and important nobles.
• After the text was written, artists and painters added illustrations and decorative designs, making the manuscripts visually attractive.
• The preparation of manuscripts involved a team of specialists, including calligraphers, painters, binders and paper makers, working under royal patronage.
• The Mughal emperors maintained large imperial libraries, where these manuscripts were collected, preserved and sometimes read aloud in the royal court.
• These illustrated manuscripts became important sources of historical information and artistic expression during the Mughal period.

3. The Painted Image

• The Mughal court developed a rich tradition of miniature painting, which illustrated scenes from royal chronicles, court life, battles and ceremonies.
• This artistic tradition grew particularly during the reign of Emperor Akbar (1556–1605), who invited artists from Persia and India to work in the imperial workshop.
• Mughal paintings often depicted important historical events, royal processions, hunting scenes and meetings of the emperor with nobles.
• These paintings were usually included in illustrated manuscripts, such as copies of the Akbarnama and other royal chronicles.
• Mughal artists combined Persian artistic styles with Indian artistic traditions, creating a distinctive and refined form of painting.
• These paintings provide valuable historical information about court ceremonies, clothing, architecture and daily life in the Mughal Empire.

4. The Akbar Nama and the Badshah Nama

• The Akbar Nama is one of the most important Mughal chronicles written by Abu’l Fazl Allami, the court historian of Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605 CE).
• It records the history of Akbar’s reign, his military campaigns, administrative policies and achievements, presenting him as a powerful and ideal ruler.
• The work was completed around 1598 CE and is divided into three parts, the third part being the Ain-i Akbari, which describes the administration, economy and society of the Mughal Empire.
• Another important chronicle is the Badshah Nama, written by Abdul Hamid Lahori during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658 CE).
• The Badshah Nama provides detailed descriptions of court ceremonies, imperial events, architecture and royal activities during Shah Jahan’s reign.
• Many copies of these chronicles were beautifully illustrated with miniature paintings, making them valuable sources for both history and art.

5. The Ideal Kingdom

• Mughal chronicles presented the emperor as an ideal ruler chosen by God, whose duty was to maintain justice, order and harmony in society.
• The emperor was seen as the supreme authority in the empire, responsible for protecting the welfare of his subjects.
• Mughal political ideas emphasised that the ruler should be wise, just and capable of maintaining peace and stability.
• The king was expected to promote prosperity, encourage trade and support cultural activities in the empire.
• Mughal court historians used their writings to strengthen the legitimacy and authority of the emperor.
• These ideas about kingship influenced the administration, court rituals and political ideology of the Mughal Empire.

5.1 A divine light

• Mughal political ideology described the emperor as a ruler chosen by divine will, whose authority came from God (Allah) and whose duty was to govern the empire with justice and wisdom.
• The concept of divine kingship was strongly influenced by the Persian theory of kingship, which believed that rulers possessed a sacred radiance known as “farr-i izadi” (divine light or divine glory).
• According to this idea, the emperor was believed to receive divine guidance, which enabled him to rule the empire fairly and maintain order in society.
• Court historians such as Abu’l Fazl Allami described the Mughal emperor as a shadow of God on earth, whose authority ensured justice, harmony and stability in the kingdom.
• Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605 CE) promoted this idea strongly in his court ideology, presenting himself as a divinely inspired ruler responsible for the welfare of all his subjects.
• This belief helped strengthen the political legitimacy of the Mughal emperor, encouraging loyalty and obedience from nobles, officials and common people.
• The concept of divine light was also reflected in royal rituals, court ceremonies and paintings, where the emperor was often shown surrounded by a halo symbolising divine authority.

5.2 A unifying force

• Mughal rulers believed that the emperor should act as a unifying force for the diverse population of the empire, which included people of different religions, cultures and regions.
• Emperor Akbar promoted the idea of sulh-i kul (universal peace), which emphasised tolerance and respect for all religious traditions within the empire.
• Under this policy, people belonging to different religions such as Hindus, Muslims, Jains, Christians and Zoroastrians were allowed to practise their own beliefs and customs.
• Akbar invited scholars and religious leaders from various communities to participate in intellectual debates at the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri, established around 1575 CE.
• These discussions encouraged dialogue among different religious traditions, helping the emperor understand the beliefs and philosophies of his subjects.
• By promoting religious tolerance and mutual respect, Akbar attempted to strengthen the unity and stability of the Mughal Empire.
• This policy helped integrate different communities and regional elites into the Mughal political system, reinforcing the emperor’s role as the central unifying authority of the empire.

5.3 Just sovereignty as social contract

• Mughal political thinkers believed that the relationship between the emperor and his subjects was based on the principle of justice and mutual responsibility, often described as a form of social contract.
• According to this idea, the emperor had the duty to protect his people, maintain law and order and ensure the prosperity of the empire, while the subjects were expected to show loyalty and obedience to the ruler.
• Court historian Abu’l Fazl Allami explained that a just ruler should create conditions of peace, security and economic prosperity, allowing agriculture, trade and crafts to flourish.
• The Mughal emperor was expected to treat his subjects without discrimination based on religion, caste or social status, reflecting the broader ideology of sulh-i kul (universal peace).
• Justice was considered the foundation of good governance, and Mughal rulers were expected to listen to grievances and resolve disputes fairly.
• Royal courts and administrative institutions were established to enforce laws, regulate taxation and maintain social order across the empire.
• This concept of just sovereignty helped legitimise Mughal rule by presenting the emperor as a protector and guardian of the welfare of his subjects.

6. Capitals and Courts

• The Mughal emperors established several imperial capitals, which served as the political, administrative and cultural centres of the empire.
• Important Mughal capitals included Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore, Delhi (Shahjahanabad) and occasionally Ajmer, where the emperor held court.
• The Mughal court was the centre of political authority, where the emperor met nobles, officials, ambassadors and visitors from different regions.
• Court ceremonies were conducted with strict rules of etiquette and hierarchy, emphasising the power and prestige of the emperor.
• The emperor appeared in public during important rituals such as jharokha darshan, where he addressed his subjects from a balcony of the palace.
• The court was also a centre of cultural activity, where scholars, artists, poets and musicians received royal patronage.
• Through elaborate ceremonies, rituals and court practices, the Mughal rulers projected an image of grandeur, authority and divine kingship.

6.1 Capital cities

• The Mughal emperors established several imperial capitals, which functioned as the administrative and political centres of the empire.
• Agra became an important capital during the reigns of Akbar (1556–1605) and Jahangir (1605–1627), and many major administrative decisions were taken there.
• Akbar founded a new capital at Fatehpur Sikri in 1571 CE, near Agra, which served as the Mughal capital for about 14 years before the court shifted again.
• Later, Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) established a new imperial capital at Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi) in 1648 CE, where he built the Red Fort (Lal Qila) as the royal palace.
• These capitals contained royal palaces, administrative buildings, markets, gardens and mosques, reflecting the grandeur and power of the Mughal Empire.
• The shifting of capitals also allowed the emperors to maintain closer control over different regions of the empire.

6.2 The Mughal court

• The Mughal court was the central place where the emperor conducted administration, diplomacy and ceremonial activities.
• The court included nobles, military commanders, scholars, artists, ambassadors and officials, who gathered to attend the emperor.
• Strict rules of court etiquette and hierarchy determined how nobles approached and addressed the emperor.
• Important ceremonies included jharokha darshan, where the emperor appeared before the public from a balcony, and public audiences (diwan-i-am) where subjects presented petitions.
• In private audiences (diwan-i-khas), the emperor met high-ranking nobles and foreign envoys to discuss important political matters.
• The court also functioned as a centre of cultural patronage, where poets, musicians and painters received royal support and recognition.

6.3 Titles and gifts

• The Mughal emperors used a system of titles, honours and gifts to reward loyalty and strengthen relations with nobles, officials and regional rulers.
• Titles such as Khan, Amir, Mirza and Raja were granted to individuals to recognise their status, service and closeness to the emperor.
• Receiving a title from the emperor was considered a great honour, and it elevated the social prestige and political authority of the recipient.
• The emperor also distributed valuable gifts such as robes of honour (khilat), jewellery, horses, elephants and weapons, which symbolised royal favour and recognition.
• In Mughal court culture, the exchange of gifts was an important political ritual, used to maintain loyalty and hierarchy among the nobility.
• Nobles were also expected to present tribute and gifts to the emperor during court ceremonies, reinforcing the relationship between the ruler and his officials.
• Through this system of titles and gifts, the Mughal emperors strengthened the administrative structure and loyalty of their imperial officials.

7. The Imperial Household

• The imperial household was the extended family and domestic establishment of the Mughal emperor, which included royal relatives, servants, attendants and palace officials.
• A major part of the household was the zenana (royal harem), where the emperor’s wives, mothers, daughters and other female relatives resided.
• The zenana was a large and complex institution, supervised by senior women and guarded by eunuchs and female attendants.
• Women of the imperial household sometimes played an important role in political and economic affairs, influencing decisions at the court.
• For example, Nur Jahan, the wife of Emperor Jahangir (r. 1605–1627), exercised considerable political influence during his reign.
• The imperial household also included numerous servants, cooks, guards, artisans and administrators, who managed the daily functioning of the palace.
• Maintaining the imperial household required large financial resources, reflecting the wealth and prestige of the Mughal Empire.

8. The Imperial Officials

• The Mughal Empire was governed through a large and organised administrative system of imperial officials, who helped the emperor manage the vast territories of the empire.
• These officials included nobles, military commanders, revenue officers and administrative administrators, who were collectively known as the Mughal nobility.
• Most of these officials served the emperor through the mansabdari system, which determined their rank, salary and military responsibilities.
• The emperor personally appointed high officials and nobles, ensuring that they remained loyal to the central authority of the Mughal state.
• Imperial officials were responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting land revenue, supervising administration and commanding armies in different regions.
• The Mughal administrative system was highly structured, allowing the emperor to exercise control over both the central government and provincial territories.
• Through this network of officials, the Mughal state maintained effective governance and political stability across the empire.

8.1 Recruitment and rank

• Mughal officials were appointed through the mansabdari system, introduced and developed during the reign of Emperor Akbar (1556–1605 CE).
• The term mansab means rank or position, and each official (mansabdar) was assigned a specific rank which determined his status, salary and military obligations.
• The mansabdari system divided ranks into two numerical categories called zat and sawar.
• Zat rank indicated the personal status and salary of the official, while sawar rank determined the number of cavalry soldiers the officer had to maintain.
• Mughal nobles were recruited from diverse ethnic and regional backgrounds, including Turani (Central Asian), Irani (Persian), Afghans, Rajputs and Indian Muslims.
• The inclusion of Rajput rulers and nobles, especially during the reign of Akbar, helped strengthen the political stability of the empire.
• This system ensured that the emperor maintained direct control over the nobility, since ranks and positions were granted and regulated by the Mughal ruler.

8.2 Information and empire

• Efficient governance of the vast Mughal Empire (16th–17th century) required a strong information and communication system, which kept the emperor informed about developments in different parts of the empire.
• The Mughal administration maintained a network of official news reporters known as waqia-navis, who regularly sent reports about political events, administrative matters and local conditions to the imperial court.
• These reports were carefully compiled and presented to the emperor so that he could monitor the activities of officials and provincial governors.
• Another group of officials known as news writers and intelligence agents collected information about military movements, local disputes and economic conditions.
• The Mughal state also used an organised postal system with horse riders and messengers, which enabled rapid communication between the capital and distant provinces.
• This system allowed the emperor to maintain control over the empire, supervise officials and respond quickly to political developments.
• Through these information networks, the Mughal rulers were able to strengthen central authority and ensure effective administration across their territories.

8.3 Beyond the centre: provincial administration

• The Mughal Empire was divided into large administrative provinces called subas, which helped the emperor manage the vast territories of the empire.
• Each suba was governed by an official called the subadar (provincial governor), who was responsible for maintaining law and order and supervising administration.
• Other important provincial officials included the diwan (revenue officer) who managed tax collection and financial administration, and the bakhshi, who supervised military organisation and soldiers.
• The provinces were further divided into districts (sarkars) and smaller administrative units called parganas, which helped in the efficient management of local affairs.
• At the local level, officials such as qanungos, amils and village headmen assisted in collecting revenue and maintaining records.
• This administrative structure allowed the Mughal state to exercise authority over distant regions while maintaining a link with the central government.
• The system ensured that the emperor’s policies were implemented throughout the empire, from the capital to the smallest administrative unit.

9. Beyond the Frontiers

• The Mughal Empire maintained diplomatic, cultural and commercial relations with neighbouring empires and distant regions, which influenced politics and trade beyond its borders.
• Important foreign powers interacting with the Mughals included the Safavid Empire of Persia (Iran), the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) and various European powers.
• These relationships involved diplomacy, trade, religious interactions and political rivalry, especially in regions located along the north-western frontiers of the empire.
• Mughal rulers exchanged ambassadors, letters and gifts with foreign rulers to maintain political alliances and mutual recognition.
• Foreign travellers, merchants and missionaries also visited the Mughal court, bringing new cultural and religious influences.
• Through these interactions, the Mughal Empire became part of a wider international network linking South Asia with West Asia and Europe.

9.1 The Safavids and Qandahar

• The Safavid Empire of Persia (Iran) was one of the most important neighbours of the Mughal Empire, and relations between the two were often shaped by political rivalry and diplomacy.
• A major point of conflict between the two empires was the strategic city of Qandahar (present-day Afghanistan).
• Qandahar was important because it controlled the trade routes connecting India with Central Asia and Iran, making it valuable for both economic and military reasons.
• The city frequently changed hands between the Mughals and the Safavids during the 16th and 17th centuries.
• Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) successfully captured Qandahar in 1595, strengthening Mughal control over the north-western frontier.
• However, during the reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658), the Safavid ruler Shah Abbas II recaptured Qandahar in 1649, and the Mughals were unable to regain it despite several attempts.
• The struggle over Qandahar highlights the strategic importance of frontier regions in Mughal foreign policy.

9.2 The Ottomans: pilgrimage and trade

• The Ottoman Empire, centred in Anatolia (modern Turkey) and controlling Mecca and Medina, maintained diplomatic and cultural contacts with the Mughal Empire.
• Since Mecca and Medina were the holiest cities of Islam, Mughal emperors showed great interest in maintaining relations with the Ottoman rulers, who were considered the guardians of these sacred places.
• Mughal rulers provided financial assistance and gifts to support the pilgrimage (Hajj) of Muslims travelling from India to Mecca.
• Pilgrims and traders travelling to the Arabian Peninsula also contributed to the development of commercial connections between Mughal India and West Asia.
• Through these interactions, the Mughal Empire remained connected with the wider Islamic world, strengthening both religious and economic links.
• These contacts helped facilitate the exchange of ideas, goods and cultural influences between the Mughal Empire and the Ottoman territories.

9.3 Jesuits at the Mughal court

• During the reign of Emperor Akbar (1556–1605), Christian missionaries known as Jesuits were invited to the Mughal court from the Portuguese colony of Goa.
• The first Jesuit mission arrived at Akbar’s court in Fatehpur Sikri in 1580 CE, carrying copies of the Bible and Christian religious texts.
• Akbar encouraged religious discussions and debates between Jesuit missionaries and scholars of Islam, Hinduism, Jainism and Zoroastrianism.
• These discussions were part of the emperor’s broader effort to understand different religious traditions and promote intellectual dialogue.
• The Jesuits presented Christian teachings and images of Jesus and Mary, which influenced some aspects of Mughal art and painting.
• Although Akbar did not convert to Christianity, these interactions reflect the religious curiosity and openness of the Mughal court during his reign.

10. Questioning Formal Religion

• Emperor Akbar (r. 1556–1605) showed great interest in understanding different religious traditions and philosophical ideas, which led him to question rigid forms of formal religious authority.
• In 1575 CE, Akbar established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars and religious leaders gathered to discuss religious and philosophical issues.
• Participants in these debates included Muslim ulama, Hindu pandits, Jain monks, Zoroastrian priests and Christian Jesuit missionaries.
• Through these discussions, Akbar realised that religious scholars often disagreed with one another, which led him to emphasise the importance of tolerance and mutual respect.
• He promoted the principle of sulh-i kul (universal peace), which encouraged harmony among people of different religions within the Mughal Empire.
• Akbar also attempted to introduce a new spiritual idea known as Din-i Ilahi (1582 CE), which combined elements from various religious traditions, although it was followed by only a small number of people.
• These developments reflect Akbar’s efforts to promote religious dialogue, reduce sectarian conflict and strengthen unity within the diverse Mughal Empire.

NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 provides important insights into the political structure, administrative system and court culture of the Mughal Empire. Studying NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 helps students understand how Mughal rulers used royal chronicles, ceremonies and administrative institutions to maintain authority and legitimacy.

A detailed study of NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 also explains the importance of historical sources such as Akbarnama, Badshah Nama and other Mughal chronicles, which provide valuable information about the functioning of the empire. The chapter highlights the role of imperial officials, provincial administration and foreign relations in shaping the Mughal state. Mastering NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 strengthens preparation for topics related to Mughal political history, administrative structure and cultural life.

This chapter concludes the NCERT Class 12 History Themes in Indian History Part II, which covers important developments in medieval Indian society, religion, politics and economy.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 about?
NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 explains the Mughal court, royal chronicles, administrative system and political ideology of the Mughal Empire.

Q2. Why is NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 important for exams?
NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 is important because questions related to Mughal administration, mansabdari system, court chronicles and political ideology frequently appear in CBSE and UPSC exams.

Q3. What are the important chronicles mentioned in NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9?
Important chronicles discussed in NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 include the Akbarnama written by Abu’l Fazl and the Badshah Nama written by Abdul Hamid Lahori.

Q4. What is the mansabdari system explained in NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9?
The mansabdari system was an administrative system used by the Mughal rulers to organise ranks, salaries and military responsibilities of imperial officials.

Q5. Does NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 conclude Part II of the book?
Yes, NCERT Class 12 History Chapter 9 is the final chapter of Themes in Indian History Part II, covering the political and administrative aspects of the Mughal Empire.

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