NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 – Recent Developments in Indian Politics

NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 explains the major political developments that shaped Indian politics during the 1990s and early 2000s. Students should refer to the official NCERT website for authentic textbooks and syllabus updates. In NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9, students learn how coalition governments, caste-based politics and communal issues influenced the political landscape of India.

NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 begins with the political context of the 1990s, when the dominance of the Indian National Congress declined and coalition politics became more common. The 1989 Lok Sabha elections marked the beginning of this new phase, when the National Front government led by Prime Minister V. P. Singh came to power with support from other political parties.

Another important topic discussed in NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 is the political rise of Other Backward Classes (OBCs). The turning point came when the government of Prime Minister V. P. Singh implemented the Mandal Commission recommendations on 7 August 1990, providing 27% reservation in central government jobs for OBCs. This decision significantly transformed the social and political structure of Indian democracy.

NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 also discusses issues related to communalism and secularism, especially the Ayodhya dispute. The dispute intensified during the late 1980s and early 1990s, and the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya was demolished on 6 December 1992, which led to widespread communal tensions across the country. The chapter also explains the Gujarat riots of 2002, which occurred after the Godhra train incident on 27 February 2002.

The chapter further highlights the emergence of a new political consensus in India, where most political parties accepted economic reforms and coalition politics. This period saw the formation of coalition governments such as the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee from 1998 to 2004 and the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government formed after the 2004 Lok Sabha elections under Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh.

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1. Context of the 1990s

• The 1990s marked a major turning point in Indian politics, as the country witnessed important changes in economic policy, social justice movements and the structure of political power.
• One major development was the economic crisis of 1991, when India faced a severe balance of payments crisis, leading the government of Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao (1921–2004) and Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh (born 1932) to introduce economic liberalisation reforms in July 1991.
• These reforms reduced government control over industries, encouraged private investment and opened the Indian economy to global markets, fundamentally changing the economic policy framework of India.
• Politically, the period after the 1989 Lok Sabha elections marked the decline of single-party dominance, particularly that of the Indian National Congress.
• Regional parties and caste-based political movements gained strength during the 1990s, especially organisations representing Other Backward Classes (OBCs), Dalits and regional communities.
• As a result, the 1990s became the era of coalition politics, where multiple political parties shared power at the national level instead of a single dominant party.

2. Era of coalitions

• The era of coalition politics in India began after the 1989 Lok Sabha elections, when no single party was able to secure a clear majority in Parliament.
• In 1989, the National Front government led by Prime Minister V. P. Singh (1931–2008) came to power with the support of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the Left Front parties.
• Coalition governments became common during the 1990s, reflecting the increasing influence of regional parties and smaller political groups in national politics.
• Governments during this period often depended on alliances among several parties with different ideological positions, making political negotiation and compromise an important part of governance.
• The rise of coalition politics demonstrated that Indian democracy had become more competitive and representative of diverse social groups and regions.

3. Decline of Congress

• The Indian National Congress, which had dominated Indian politics since Independence in 1947, began to lose its dominance during the late 1980s and early 1990s.
• In the 1989 Lok Sabha elections, the Congress party lost power and the National Front government led by V. P. Singh became the ruling government.
• Although the Congress returned to power in the 1991 general elections under Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao, its parliamentary majority was weaker compared to earlier decades.
• The rise of strong regional political parties such as the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) founded by N. T. Rama Rao in 1982, and the increasing influence of parties like the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and Shiromani Akali Dal, reduced the Congress party’s dominance.
• Social justice politics, particularly the mobilisation of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) after the Mandal Commission implementation in 1990, also weakened the traditional support base of the Congress.
• By the mid-1990s, Indian politics had become multi-party and coalition-based, ending the earlier era of Congress system dominance.

4. Alliance politics

• As coalition governments became common after 1989, political parties increasingly began forming electoral alliances and governing coalitions to gain power at the national level.
• Several important alliances emerged during the 1990s and early 2000s, such as the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) led by the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
• The NDA government led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1924–2018) ruled India from 1998 to 2004, representing one of the most stable coalition governments of the period.
• Another major coalition was the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) led by the Indian National Congress, which came to power after the 2004 Lok Sabha elections.
• The rise of alliance politics meant that regional parties such as the DMK, AIADMK, TDP, Samajwadi Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal played an increasingly important role in national decision-making.
• Coalition politics required negotiation, compromise and power-sharing among multiple parties, making Indian democracy more inclusive and representative of diverse interests.

5. Political rise of Other Backward Classes

• During the 1980s and 1990s, the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) emerged as a powerful political force in Indian politics, demanding greater social justice and political representation.
• OBCs include several social groups that were historically disadvantaged in terms of education, employment and political participation, although they were not classified as Scheduled Castes or Scheduled Tribes.
• The political mobilisation of OBCs gained momentum after the recommendations of the Mandal Commission (1979) were implemented by the government of Prime Minister V. P. Singh in August 1990.
• The implementation of the Mandal Commission recommendations in 1990 introduced 27% reservation in central government jobs for OBCs, which significantly increased the political mobilisation of backward caste communities.
• Several regional leaders representing OBC interests gained prominence during this period, including Lalu Prasad Yadav (born 1948) in Bihar, Mulayam Singh Yadav (1939–2022) in Uttar Pradesh, and Devi Lal (1914–2001) in Haryana.
• The rise of OBC politics transformed the social base of Indian democracy, making the political system more inclusive for historically marginalised communities.

5.1 ‘Mandal’ implemented

• The implementation of the Mandal Commission recommendations in 1990 became one of the most significant political developments in India during the late 20th century.
• The decision was announced on 7 August 1990 by Prime Minister V. P. Singh (1931–2008), who headed the National Front government formed after the 1989 Lok Sabha elections.
• The government decided to implement the recommendation that 27% reservation in central government jobs should be provided to Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
• The announcement triggered massive political reactions across India, with large protests and demonstrations especially by students in several cities during 1990.
• Supporters of the policy argued that it was necessary to correct historical social inequalities and ensure fair representation of backward classes in government employment.
• The implementation of Mandal reservations significantly strengthened the political mobilisation of OBC communities and influenced the rise of new regional leaders and parties.

5.2 The Mandal Commission

• The Mandal Commission, officially known as the Second Backward Classes Commission, was established by the Janata Party government of Prime Minister Morarji Desai (1896–1995) in January 1979.
• The commission was chaired by Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal (B. P. Mandal) (1918–1982), a former Chief Minister of Bihar.
• The main objective of the commission was to identify socially and educationally backward classes in India and recommend measures to improve their representation in government services.
• After extensive surveys and analysis, the commission submitted its report to the Government of India in December 1980.
• The report estimated that Other Backward Classes (OBCs) constituted about 52% of India’s population.
• The commission recommended that 27% reservation should be provided for OBCs in central government jobs, in addition to the existing reservations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.

5.3 Political fallouts

• The implementation of the Mandal Commission recommendations in 1990 had major political consequences across India.
• Large anti-reservation protests took place in many cities during 1990, particularly among students in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and other northern states.
• At the same time, many OBC communities strongly supported the policy, seeing it as an important step toward social justice and equal opportunities.
• The Mandal issue contributed to major changes in the political landscape of North India, strengthening parties representing backward caste interests.
• Regional leaders such as Lalu Prasad Yadav (born 1948), Mulayam Singh Yadav (1939–2022) and Nitish Kumar (born 1951) gained political prominence during this period.
• The Mandal controversy also intensified political competition between parties over issues of caste, representation and social justice.

6. Communalism, secularism, democracy

• Alongside caste politics during the 1990s, India also witnessed increasing debates about communalism, secularism and the role of religion in politics.
• Communalism refers to political mobilisation based on religious identity, which can sometimes create conflicts between different religious communities.
• One of the most controversial issues during this period was the Ayodhya dispute, which involved claims over the site believed by many Hindus to be the birthplace of Lord Ram in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh.
• Political organisations such as the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and groups associated with the Ram Janmabhoomi movement supported the construction of a Ram temple at the disputed site.
• Opponents argued that the dispute should be resolved through legal and constitutional processes, emphasising the importance of secularism and communal harmony in India.
• The controversy over Ayodhya became a major political issue during the late 1980s and early 1990s, influencing national elections and party politics.

6.1 Ayodhya dispute

• The Ayodhya dispute centred on a site in Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh, where the Babri Masjid had been constructed in 1528 during the reign of the Mughal emperor Babur.
• Many Hindu groups claimed that the mosque had been built after demolishing a temple marking the birthplace of Lord Ram, making the site a major religious and political issue.
• The dispute intensified during the 1980s, when organisations such as the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) launched a movement demanding the construction of a Ram temple at the site.
• In 1990, BJP leader Lal Krishna Advani (born 1927) organised the Ram Rath Yatra from Somnath in Gujarat to Ayodhya, mobilising large political support for the movement.
• The political mobilisation around Ayodhya significantly increased religious tensions and polarisation in Indian politics during the early 1990s.
• The conflict eventually led to the demolition of the Babri Masjid on 6 December 1992, which triggered widespread communal violence in several parts of India.

6.2 Demolition and after

• The Babri Masjid in Ayodhya, Uttar Pradesh, was demolished on 6 December 1992 by thousands of kar sevaks (volunteers) who had gathered as part of the Ram Janmabhoomi movement.
• The demolition took place during a large political mobilisation organised by organisations such as the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) and supported by leaders of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
• Prominent political leaders associated with the movement included Lal Krishna Advani (born 1927), Murli Manohar Joshi (born 1934) and Uma Bharti (born 1959).
• The destruction of the mosque triggered widespread communal riots across India during December 1992 and early 1993, leading to thousands of deaths and extensive property damage.
• The event created a major debate about communalism, secularism and the role of religion in Indian politics, becoming one of the most controversial political events in post-independence India.
• The dispute over the Ayodhya site remained a major legal and political issue for many years, with court cases continuing in the Indian judicial system.

6.3 Gujarat riots

• In February 2002, serious communal violence broke out in the state of Gujarat, becoming one of the most tragic episodes of communal conflict in recent Indian history.
• The violence began after the Godhra train incident on 27 February 2002, when a coach of the Sabarmati Express train carrying Hindu pilgrims returning from Ayodhya was set on fire at Godhra railway station in Gujarat.
• The incident resulted in the death of 59 people, many of whom were associated with the Ram Janmabhoomi movement.
• Following the incident, large-scale communal riots spread across several cities of Gujarat during February–March 2002, leading to the deaths of more than 1,000 people, mostly Muslims.
• At that time, the Chief Minister of Gujarat was Narendra Modi (born 1950), whose government faced serious criticism from opposition parties, human rights organisations and civil society groups over the handling of the violence.
• The Gujarat riots intensified the national debate about communalism, secularism, minority rights and the role of the state in protecting citizens during communal conflicts.

7. Emergence of a new consensus

• Despite intense political competition during the 1990s and early 2000s, several political parties in India gradually developed a broad consensus on key national policies.
• Many parties began accepting the economic reforms and liberalisation policies introduced in 1991 by the government of Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh.
• There was also growing agreement among major parties on the importance of maintaining democratic institutions, coalition politics and federal cooperation between the centre and states.
• Political parties increasingly recognised that regional parties and coalition partners must be included in decision-making at the national level.
• This emerging consensus helped maintain political stability despite frequent coalition governments during the 1990s and early 2000s.

7.1 Lok Sabha Elections 2004

• The 14th Lok Sabha elections were held in April–May 2004, becoming an important milestone in the era of coalition politics in India.
• Before the elections, the ruling coalition was the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) led by Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1924–2018) of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
• The main opposition coalition was the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) led by the Indian National Congress under Sonia Gandhi (born 1946).
• Contrary to many political expectations, the NDA lost the election in 2004, and the UPA coalition secured enough support from several regional parties to form the government.
• After the elections, Dr. Manmohan Singh (born 1932) became the Prime Minister of India on 22 May 2004, heading the UPA government.
• The 2004 election results reinforced the importance of coalition politics and alliances in Indian democracy.

7.2 Growing consensus

• By the early 2000s, Indian political parties had gradually developed a broader consensus on several key issues of national policy.
• Most major parties accepted the continuation of economic liberalisation policies introduced in 1991, although they differed in their approaches to social welfare and development programmes.
• There was also broad agreement on the importance of maintaining democratic institutions, coalition governance and federal cooperation between the central government and the states.
• Political parties increasingly recognised the need to include regional parties in national governance, reflecting the diverse social and regional character of Indian democracy.
• The experience of coalition politics during the 1990s and early 2000s showed that political stability could be maintained through negotiation and cooperation among multiple parties.
• This growing consensus demonstrated the maturity and adaptability of Indian democracy in responding to changing political realities.

NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 provides a comprehensive understanding of the transformation of Indian politics during the 1990s and early 2000s. Studying NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 helps students understand the rise of coalition politics, the influence of caste-based mobilisation and the challenges posed by communal tensions.

A detailed study of NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 also highlights important political developments such as the implementation of the Mandal Commission in 1990, the Babri Masjid demolition in 1992 and the Gujarat riots in 2002. These developments significantly influenced the direction of Indian politics in the contemporary period. Understanding NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 is important for CBSE board exams and competitive exams such as UPSC and BPSC, where questions related to recent political developments are frequently asked.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 about?
NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 explains recent political developments in India, including coalition politics, Mandal Commission implementation, communal issues and political changes during the 1990s and early 2000s.

Q2. Why is NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 important for exams?
NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9 is important because it explains major topics such as coalition governments, Mandal politics and communal conflicts, which are frequently asked in CBSE and competitive exams like UPSC and BPSC.

Q3. When were the Mandal Commission recommendations implemented according to NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9?
According to NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9, the Mandal Commission recommendations were implemented on 7 August 1990 by Prime Minister V. P. Singh, providing 27% reservation for OBCs in central government jobs.

Q4. What happened on 6 December 1992 mentioned in NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9?
On 6 December 1992, the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya was demolished, which led to widespread communal tensions and political debates across India.

Q5. Which government came to power after the 2004 Lok Sabha elections according to NCERT Class 12 Indian Polity Chapter 9?
After the 2004 Lok Sabha elections, the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) formed the government and Dr. Manmohan Singh became the Prime Minister of India on 22 May 2004.

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