NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 – Landforms and their Evolution

NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 explains how different landforms are created and modified over time by natural forces. Students should refer to the official NCERT website at for authentic textbooks and syllabus updates. In NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7, students study river landforms, glacial landforms, desert landforms and coastal landforms formed due to erosion and deposition.

NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 is very important for CBSE board exams and competitive exams like UPSC and BPSC because landforms are frequently asked in prelims and mains examinations. A strong understanding of NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 helps in map-based questions and environmental geography.

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1. Running water

• Running water is one of the most important geomorphic agents that shapes the Earth’s surface.
• It erodes, transports and deposits material, modifying the landscape over time.
• The work of running water depends on factors such as gradient (slope), volume and velocity of flow.
• Running water forms different landforms during its course from source to mouth.
• The erosional and depositional activities of rivers vary according to different stages of development.

1.1 Youth

• In the youth stage, a river flows swiftly due to a steep gradient and has high erosive power.
• The main activity during this stage is vertical erosion, which deepens the river valley.
• The river channel is narrow and often contains rapids and waterfalls.
• Valleys formed during this stage are typically V-shaped due to dominant downcutting.
• Deposition is very limited in this stage because most of the material is transported downstream.

1.2 Mature

• In the mature stage, the river’s gradient becomes less steep, and the rate of vertical erosion decreases.
• Lateral erosion becomes more dominant, widening the valley.
• The river begins to develop meanders due to sideward erosion and deposition.
• Valleys become broader with gentler slopes compared to the youth stage.
• Deposition increases as the river’s transporting capacity reduces.

1.3 Old

• In the old stage, the river flows over a very gentle gradient and has minimal erosive power.
• Deposition becomes the dominant activity as the river loses much of its transporting capacity.
• The valley becomes very broad and flat, forming an extensive floodplain.
• Meanders become highly pronounced and may form features like cut-offs over time.
• The river approaches its base level, and vertical erosion almost ceases.

2. Erosional landforms (running water)

• The erosional work of running water results in the removal of rock material through processes such as hydraulic action, abrasion and solution.
• Vertical and lateral erosion together shape distinct erosional features along the river course.
• The intensity of erosion depends on the velocity of flow, volume of water and nature of rocks.
• Erosional landforms are more prominent in the youthful stage of a river.
• These landforms reflect the river’s capacity to cut and deepen its valley over time.

2.1 Valleys

• Valleys are elongated depressions formed by the continuous erosion of rocks by running water.
• In the youth stage, valleys are narrow and deep with steep sides, forming typical V-shaped valleys.
• As erosion continues, the valley widens due to increasing lateral erosion.
• The shape and size of a valley depend on the stage of the river, gradient and rock structure.
• Over time, valleys may develop into broader forms with gentler slopes in the mature and old stages.

2.2 Potholes and Plunge Pools

• Potholes are small, circular depressions formed on the rocky bed of a river due to the swirling action of water carrying pebbles and sand.
• Continuous rotation of these rock fragments deepens and widens the potholes over time.
• Plunge pools are deep depressions formed at the base of waterfalls due to the intense erosional force of falling water.
• The impact of water and the grinding action of rock fragments enlarge the plunge pool gradually.
• Both potholes and plunge pools are typical erosional features found mainly in the youthful stage of a river.

2.3 Incised or Entrenched Meanders

• Incised or entrenched meanders are deeply cut bends in a river valley formed due to renewed vertical erosion.
• These develop when a river that already has meanders experiences uplift of land or a fall in base level.
• As a result, the river cuts downward rapidly, preserving its meandering pattern in a deep valley.
• The valley sides become steep and symmetrical in entrenched meanders.
• These landforms indicate rejuvenation in the river’s erosional activity.

2.4 River Terraces

• River terraces are flat surfaces found along the sides of a river valley, representing former floodplain levels.
• They are formed due to renewed vertical erosion when the river cuts down into its own deposited material.
• Terraces indicate a change in the river’s base level or tectonic uplift of the region.
• They appear as step-like features along the valley sides.
• River terraces are evidence of alternating phases of erosion and deposition in the river’s history.

3. Depositional landforms (running water)

• Depositional landforms are formed when a river loses its carrying capacity and deposits the transported material.
• Deposition generally occurs in the mature and old stages of a river when the velocity decreases.
• The load carried by the river includes boulders, sand, silt and clay, which are deposited according to size and weight.
• These landforms are commonly formed along river valleys and near the river mouth.
• Depositional features reflect the reduced energy and gradient of the river.

3.1 Alluvial Fans

• Alluvial fans are fan-shaped deposits formed when a river emerging from a mountain region enters a plain.
• As the river leaves the steep slope and reaches a gentler gradient, its velocity decreases, leading to deposition of sediments.
• Coarser materials such as boulders and gravels are deposited first near the base of the slope.
• Finer materials like sand and silt are carried farther and deposited outward.
• Over time, repeated deposition creates a broad, fan-shaped landform at the foothills.

3.2 Deltas

• A Delta is a depositional landform formed at the mouth of a river where it enters a sea or lake.
• When the river’s velocity decreases at the mouth, it deposits large amounts of sediments.
• Continuous deposition causes the river to split into several smaller channels called distributaries.
• Deltas are generally triangular in shape and are formed in regions where the rate of sediment supply is high.
• The formation of a delta depends on the balance between river deposition and marine processes.

3.3 Floodplains

• A Floodplain is a flat and wide area formed by the deposition of sediments along the sides of a river.
• It develops mainly during the mature and old stages of a river when lateral erosion and deposition dominate.
• During floods, the river overflows its banks and spreads fine sediments over the adjoining land.
• Repeated flooding gradually builds up a broad and fertile plain.
• Floodplains are important features of low-gradient river valleys.

3.4 Natural Levees and Point Bars

• Natural levees are raised embankments formed along the banks of a river due to repeated deposition of sediments during floods.
• During flooding, heavier materials are deposited first near the river banks, gradually building up elevated ridges.
• Point bars are depositional features formed on the inner side of a meander bend.
• On the outer bank of a meander, erosion is dominant, while deposition occurs on the inner bank.
• Continuous deposition on the inner bend leads to the formation of gently sloping point bars.

3.5 Meanders

• Meanders are sinuous bends or loops formed in the course of a river due to dominant lateral erosion and deposition.
• They develop mainly in the mature and old stages when the gradient becomes gentle.
• Erosion occurs on the outer bank, while deposition takes place on the inner bank of the bend.
• Continuous erosion and deposition enlarge the bends over time.
• Meanders indicate the shifting nature of the river channel across the floodplain.

4. Groundwater

• Groundwater is the water that infiltrates into the soil and moves downward through pores and cracks in rocks.
• It accumulates in the zone of saturation below the water table.
• The work of groundwater is mainly significant in regions composed of soluble rocks, especially limestone.
• Groundwater shapes landforms through processes of solution and deposition.
• The geomorphic work of groundwater results in distinct erosional and depositional features.

4.1 Erosional landforms (groundwater)

• The erosional work of groundwater is most active in areas composed of limestone and other soluble rocks.
• The process of solution dissolves calcium carbonate and enlarges joints and cracks in the rock.
• Continuous dissolution leads to the development of underground drainage systems.
• These processes result in characteristic landforms commonly associated with karst topography.
• Erosional features formed by groundwater are mainly subsurface in nature.

4.2 Pools

• Pools are small depressions formed on the surface due to the solution of limestone by groundwater.
• They develop where water collects in slight depressions and gradually dissolves the rock.
• Continuous chemical action enlarges these depressions over time.
• Pools are characteristic features of karst regions.

4.3 Sinkholes

• Sinkholes are funnel-shaped depressions formed due to the dissolution of limestone by groundwater.
• They develop when underground cavities collapse, causing the surface to subside.
• Sinkholes may vary in size from small pits to large depressions.
• In karst regions, numerous sinkholes may merge to form larger depressions.
• Sinkholes are a typical feature of areas with well-developed underground drainage systems.

4.4 Lapies and Limestone Pavements

• Lapies are small, sharp, irregular grooves and ridges formed on the surface of limestone due to solution by rainwater.
• Rainwater mixed with carbon dioxide forms a weak acid that dissolves calcium carbonate along joints and cracks.
• Continuous dissolution widens the grooves and leaves behind sharp ridges.
• When extensive lapies develop over a large area, they form a rough surface known as a Limestone Pavement.
• These features are typical of well-developed karst landscapes.

4.5 Caves

• Caves are underground hollow spaces formed due to the continuous solution of limestone by groundwater.
• Water percolating through joints and cracks enlarges them gradually, forming underground chambers.
• Over time, small openings widen into extensive cave systems.
• Caves are common in regions with thick deposits of limestone and well-developed karst topography.
• The roof and walls of caves are shaped by the persistent chemical action of groundwater.

4.6 Depositional Landforms (Groundwater)

• Depositional landforms are formed when calcium carbonate dissolved in groundwater is redeposited inside caves.
• Deposition occurs when water loses carbon dioxide or evaporates, causing the dissolved material to precipitate.
• These landforms are typically found inside limestone caves.
• The continuous dripping of mineral-rich water leads to gradual accumulation of deposits.
• These features are characteristic of karst regions with active groundwater movement.

4.7 Stalactites, Stalagmites and Pillar

• Stalactites are icicle-shaped deposits hanging from the roof of a cave, formed by the precipitation of calcium carbonate from dripping water.
• When mineral-rich water drops from the roof onto the cave floor, it forms upward-growing deposits called Stalagmites.
• Stalagmites are generally thicker and shorter compared to stalactites.
• Over time, if a stalactite and stalagmite join together, they form a vertical column known as a Pillar.
• These formations develop gradually through the continuous deposition of minerals inside limestone caves.

5. Glaciers

• Glaciers are large masses of ice formed by the accumulation and compaction of snow over long periods.
• They move slowly under the influence of gravity, reshaping the landscape.
• Glaciers are found mainly in polar regions and high mountain areas.
• The movement of glaciers results in both erosional and depositional landforms.
• Glacial processes are effective in modifying valleys and transporting rock material.

5.1 Erosional landforms (glaciers)

• The erosional work of glaciers occurs through processes such as plucking and abrasion.
• As glaciers move, they remove and transport large amounts of rock material.
• Glacial erosion is most effective in high mountain regions where thick ice masses are present.
• The movement of ice deepens and widens valleys.
• These processes result in the formation of distinct glacial erosional features.

5.2 Cirque

• A Cirque is a bowl-shaped, amphitheatre-like depression formed at the head of a glacial valley.
• It is created by the erosional action of a glacier through plucking and abrasion.
• Cirques have steep sides and a relatively flat or gently sloping floor.
• After the glacier melts, water may accumulate in the cirque, forming a small lake.
• Cirques are characteristic features of mountainous glaciated regions.

5.3 Horns and Serrated Ridges

• Horns are sharp, pyramid-shaped peaks formed when several cirques erode a mountain from different sides.
• Continuous glacial erosion sharpens the summit, creating a pointed peak.
• When two adjacent cirques erode towards each other, they form a narrow, knife-edged ridge known as a Serrated Ridge (Arête).
• These features are common in high mountain regions affected by glaciation.
• Horns and serrated ridges indicate intense glacial erosion at high elevations.

5.4 Glacial Valleys/Troughs

• Glacial valleys, also called troughs, are formed by the erosional action of moving glaciers.
• Unlike river valleys, which are V-shaped, glacial valleys are typically U-shaped with steep sides and a broad floor.
• The heavy mass of ice widens and deepens the valley through plucking and abrasion.
• These valleys often have flat floors and steep, straight valley walls.
• Glacial troughs are characteristic features of formerly glaciated mountainous regions.

5.5 Depositional Landforms (Glaciers)

• Depositional landforms are formed when a glacier loses its carrying capacity and deposits the transported material.
• The material carried by glaciers, known as till, consists of unsorted rock fragments of various sizes.
• Deposition occurs mainly when the glacier melts or its movement slows down.
• These deposits create distinct landforms in glaciated regions.
• Glacial depositional features are commonly found in both mountainous and lowland areas affected by glaciation.

5.6 Moraines

• Moraines are accumulations of glacial till deposited by a glacier.
• The material forming moraines is unsorted and unstratified, consisting of rocks of different sizes.
• Based on location, moraines are classified as lateral, medial, terminal and ground moraines.
• Lateral moraines are deposited along the sides of a glacier.
• Medial moraines are formed when two glaciers merge and deposit material in the middle.
• Terminal moraines are formed at the snout of a glacier, marking its maximum advance.

5.7 Eskers

• Eskers are long, narrow, winding ridges formed by the deposition of materials by streams flowing beneath a glacier.
• They are composed mainly of sand and gravel deposited by subglacial meltwater.
• Eskers appear as sinuous ridges on the landscape after the glacier melts.
• These landforms indicate the former presence of subglacial drainage channels.
• Eskers are common in regions that were once covered by continental glaciers.

5.8 Outwash Plains

• Outwash plains are extensive, gently sloping plains formed by the deposition of sediments carried by meltwater streams from glaciers.
• The sediments are sorted and stratified, mainly consisting of sand and gravel.
• These plains develop beyond the terminal moraine of a glacier.
• As meltwater flows outward, it spreads and deposits material over a broad area.
• Outwash plains are typical features of regions affected by continental glaciation.

5.9 Drumlins

• Drumlins are elongated, oval-shaped hills formed by the deposition of glacial till.
• They are aligned in the direction of glacier movement.
• Drumlins have a steep slope on the upstream side and a gentle slope on the downstream side.
• They occur in groups, creating a characteristic drumlin field.
• Drumlins indicate the direction and nature of past glacial movement.

6. Waves and currents

• Waves and currents are major geomorphic agents that shape the coastal landforms.
• Ocean waves are generated mainly by the action of wind on the water surface.
• When waves reach shallow coastal areas, their energy acts upon the shore, causing erosion and deposition.
• The movement of water along the coast due to waves produces longshore currents.
• The continuous action of waves and currents modifies the coastline over time.

6.1 High rocky coasts

• High rocky coasts are formed where resistant rock structures meet the action of strong waves.
• These coasts are characterised by steep slopes and rugged relief.
• The dominant process along such coasts is wave erosion.
• Continuous wave action cuts into the rock, shaping distinct coastal landforms.
• High rocky coasts are typically found where the land is undergoing uplift or consists of hard rocks.

6.2. Low sedimentary coasts

• Low sedimentary coasts are formed where the coast consists of soft and unconsolidated sediments.
• These coasts are generally low-lying and gently sloping.
• The dominant process along such coasts is deposition rather than erosion.
• Sediments brought by rivers and sea waves accumulate along the shoreline.
• Continuous deposition modifies the coastline and creates distinct depositional features.

6.3 Erosional landforms (waves)

• The erosional work of waves is most effective along high rocky coasts.
• Continuous wave action cuts into the base of coastal rocks through processes like hydraulic action and abrasion.
• Erosion results in the retreat of the coastline over time.
• Wave erosion forms distinct coastal features along steep and resistant rock coasts.
• These landforms reflect the destructive power of waves on rocky shores.

6.4 Cliffs

• Cliffs are steep, vertical rock faces formed along the coast due to continuous wave erosion.
• Waves erode the base of the rock, creating a notch that gradually weakens the upper part.
• The overhanging portion collapses, causing the cliff to retreat landward.
• Repeated erosion and collapse maintain the steep slope of the cliff.
• Cliffs are characteristic features of high rocky coasts.

6.5 Terraces

• Terraces are flat or gently sloping surfaces formed along the coast due to the erosional action of waves.
• Continuous wave attack cuts into the base of coastal rocks, creating a relatively level surface.
• As the cliff retreats landward, the wave-cut surface remains as a terrace.
• These terraces indicate former levels of sea action.
• Coastal terraces are common along high rocky coasts.

6.6 Caves and Stacks

• Caves are hollow openings formed in coastal rocks due to continuous wave erosion along lines of weakness.
• Persistent wave action enlarges cracks and joints to form sea caves.
• When erosion continues and cuts through a headland, an arch may form.
• With further erosion, the roof of the arch collapses, leaving behind an isolated rock pillar called a Stack.
• Caves and stacks are typical features of high rocky coasts shaped by wave action.

6.7 Depositional landforms (waves)

• Depositional landforms are formed when waves and currents lose energy and deposit sediments along the coast.
• The material deposited consists mainly of sand, gravel and other sediments carried by waves and currents.
• Deposition is more common along low sedimentary coasts.
• Longshore currents play an important role in transporting and depositing coastal sediments.
• Continuous deposition modifies the shape of the coastline and creates distinct coastal features.

6.8 Beaches and Dunes

• Beaches are depositional landforms formed by the accumulation of sand and gravel along the shoreline due to wave action.
• They develop where waves deposit material as they lose energy near the coast.
• Beaches may vary in width and slope depending on the intensity of wave activity.
• Dunes are formed when wind blows dry sand from the beach and deposits it slightly inland.
• Continuous deposition by wind results in the formation of low ridges of sand parallel to the coast.

6.9 Bars, Barriers and Spits

• Bars are elongated ridges of sand and gravel deposited by waves and longshore currents.
• When a bar is formed parallel to the coast and separated from the mainland by a lagoon, it is called a Barrier.
• A Spit is a narrow ridge of sand projecting from the coast into the sea, formed by longshore drift.
• Spits are attached to the land at one end and extend outward into the water.
• These landforms develop due to the continuous deposition of sediments along the coastline.

7. Winds

• Winds act as important geomorphic agents, especially in arid and semi-arid regions where vegetation cover is sparse.
• The work of wind includes erosion, transportation and deposition of loose materials.
• Wind erosion is more effective where the surface is dry and covered with fine particles.
• The transporting capacity of wind depends on its velocity and strength.
• Wind action results in the formation of distinct erosional and depositional landforms in desert regions.

7.1 Erosional landforms (winds)

• Wind erosion takes place mainly through processes such as deflation and abrasion.
• Deflation involves the removal of loose, fine particles from the surface.
• Abrasion occurs when wind-driven sand particles strike against rocks, wearing them down.
• Wind erosion is most active in arid regions with sparse vegetation.
• Continuous wind action shapes distinct desert landforms over time.

7.2 Pediments and Pediplains

• Pediments are gently sloping rock surfaces formed at the base of mountains in arid regions due to wind erosion and weathering.
• They develop where the steep mountain front meets a relatively flat plain.
• Continuous erosion reduces the relief and extends the pediment outward.
• When several pediments merge together over a large area, they form a broad, nearly level surface called a Pediplain.
• Pediplains represent an advanced stage of landscape evolution in desert regions.

7.3 Playas

• Playas are shallow, flat-bottomed depressions found in arid regions.
• They are formed in enclosed basins where water collects temporarily after rainfall.
• Due to high evaporation, the water dries up quickly, leaving behind salts and fine sediments.
• Playas are often covered with a layer of clay, silt and evaporite deposits.
• These features are characteristic of desert landscapes.

7.4 Deflation Hollows and Caves

• Deflation hollows are depressions formed when wind removes loose, fine particles from the surface through deflation.
• Continuous removal of material deepens and enlarges the hollow over time.
• These hollows are common in arid and semi-arid regions.
• In some cases, wind erosion along weak zones in rocks may form small caves.
• Deflation hollows reflect the intense erosional work of wind in desert areas.

7.5 Mushroom, Table and Pedestal Rocks

• Mushroom rocks are formed when wind-driven sand causes greater erosion near the base of a rock than at the top.
• Continuous abrasion undercuts the lower portion, giving the rock a shape resembling a mushroom.
• When the upper part remains broader and the lower part becomes narrow, the structure is also called a Pedestal rock.
• Table rocks are flat-topped rock masses shaped by differential wind erosion.
• These landforms are typical features of desert regions influenced by strong wind action.

7.6 Depositional Landforms (Winds)

• Depositional landforms are formed when wind loses its velocity and deposits the transported material.
• Wind mainly deposits sand and fine particles in arid regions.
• Deposition generally occurs when wind encounters an obstacle or its speed decreases.
• Continuous accumulation of sand forms characteristic desert landforms.
• These depositional features are common in regions with abundant loose sediments.

7.7 Sand Dunes

• Sand dunes are mounds or ridges of sand formed by the deposition of wind-blown sand.
• They develop where there is an abundant supply of loose sand and strong winds.
• The shape and size of dunes depend on the direction and velocity of wind.
• Dunes may migrate slowly in the direction of prevailing winds.
• Sand dunes are characteristic features of desert regions and coastal sandy areas.

NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 provides a clear explanation of how rivers, glaciers, wind and sea waves shape the Earth’s surface. Mastering NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 helps students understand floodplains, deltas, sand dunes, moraines and coastal features.

A detailed study of NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 strengthens preparation for geomorphology, disaster management and Indian physical geography.

Continue reading NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 8 – Composition and Structure of Atmosphere to understand layers of atmosphere and climatic processes in a structured and exam-oriented manner.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1. What is NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 about?
NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 explains the formation and evolution of landforms created by rivers, glaciers, wind and sea waves.

Q2. Why is NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 important for exams?
NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 is important because landforms and erosion processes are frequently asked in CBSE and UPSC examinations.

Q3. Which landforms are discussed in NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7?
The chapter discusses river landforms, glacial landforms, desert landforms and coastal landforms.

Q4. How does NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 help in UPSC preparation?
NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 strengthens conceptual clarity about geomorphology, which is important for Geography optional and General Studies papers.

Q5. Is NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 linked with later chapters?
Yes, NCERT Class 11 Physical Geography Chapter 7 connects with atmospheric and climatic chapters that explain how climate influences landform development.

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