Biodiversity

1. Introduction

Biodiversity (Biological Diversity) refers to the variety and variability of all living organisms on Earth, including plants, animals, microorganisms, and the ecosystems they form. It encompasses diversity at the genetic, species, and ecosystem levels. The term “Biodiversity” was coined by Walter G. Rosen in 1985 and was later popularized by E.O. Wilson. According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992, biodiversity includes the variability among living organisms from terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems.

Biodiversity is the foundation of life on Earth as it maintains ecological balance and supports essential ecosystem services such as food production, pollination, nutrient cycling, climate regulation, soil formation, and water purification. A rich biodiversity enhances ecosystem resilience, enabling it to withstand natural disasters, diseases, and climate change. Thus, biodiversity is indispensable for environmental sustainability and human well-being.

From an economic and social perspective, Biodiversity provides food, medicine, timber, fibre, fuel, and genetic resources for agriculture and biotechnology. It also supports livelihoods through agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and ecotourism while preserving cultural, religious, and traditional knowledge. Recognising its significance, Biodiversity Conservation has become a global priority for achieving sustainable development and addressing challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss.

2. Levels (Types) of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is studied at three interrelated levels—genetic diversity, species diversity, and ecosystem diversity. Together, these levels determine the richness, resilience, and stability of life on Earth. A decline in any one level adversely affects the functioning of ecosystems and the survival of living organisms.

Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the variation in genes within individuals of the same species. It enables organisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions, resist diseases, and improve productivity. For example, different varieties of rice, wheat, mango, and indigenous cattle breeds in India possess unique genetic traits that are valuable for agriculture and food security.

Species Diversity

Species diversity refers to the variety and abundance of different species present in a particular region or ecosystem. Greater species diversity enhances ecological stability, food web complexity, and ecosystem productivity. Biodiversity in India is particularly significant because India is home to about 8% of the world’s recorded species, despite covering only 2.4% of the global land area, making it one of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries.

Ecosystem (Ecological) Diversity

Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems, habitats, and ecological processes within a geographical region. India possesses diverse ecosystems such as tropical rainforests, deserts, grasslands, wetlands, mangroves, alpine meadows, and coral reefs, each supporting unique plant and animal communities. This diversity strengthens ecological balance and contributes significantly to climate regulation and sustainable development.

3. Distribution of Biodiversity

Global Biodiversity

• Biodiversity is unevenly distributed across the world, with tropical regions having the highest species richness.
• Tropical rainforests, coral reefs, and wetlands are among the most biodiverse ecosystems.
• Factors influencing biodiversity include climate, latitude, altitude, rainfall, and habitat diversity.
• According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), biodiversity is declining globally due to habitat loss, climate change, pollution, invasive species, and overexploitation.

Biodiversity in India

• India is one of the 17 Megadiverse Countries of the world.
• It occupies only 2.4% of the world’s land area but supports nearly 8% of the world’s recorded species.
• India harbours about 55,000 plant species and over 1 lakh animal species (including insects and other fauna).
• The country’s diverse climate and physiography contribute to its rich biological wealth.

Biodiversity Hotspots in India

India contains four global biodiversity hotspots: Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats–Sri Lanka, and Sundaland (Nicobar Islands).

• These regions have high levels of endemic species but are under severe threat from human activities.

India’s Status as a Mega-diverse Country

• India ranks among the world’s 17 megadiverse nations, possessing exceptional species richness and endemism.
• It is a centre of origin for several important crops such as rice, pigeon pea, eggplant, cucumber, sesame, and various millets.
• India has a rich diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants, supporting traditional healthcare systems like Ayurveda.

Biodiversity in Bihar

• Bihar’s biodiversity is supported by the Gangetic plains, wetlands, forests, and river ecosystems.
• Important biodiversity-rich areas include Valmiki Tiger Reserve, Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary, and Kanwar Lake Bird Sanctuary.
• The state is home to species such as the Gangetic Dolphin (National Aquatic Animal), Bengal Tiger, Indian Gharial, and numerous migratory birds.
• Conservation efforts focus on wetland restoration, afforestation, wildlife protection, and community participation.

4. Importance of Biodiversity

Ecological Importance

Biodiversity is essential for maintaining ecological balance and the functioning of ecosystems. It supports vital ecological processes such as nutrient cycling, pollination, decomposition, soil formation, water purification, and climate regulation. Greater biodiversity also enhances the resilience of ecosystems against natural disasters, diseases, and climate change.

Economic Importance

Biodiversity provides valuable resources such as food, timber, fuel, fibre, medicines, and industrial raw materials. Agriculture, fisheries, forestry, pharmaceuticals, and ecotourism largely depend on biological resources, making biodiversity a significant contributor to livelihoods and economic development.

Scientific and Agricultural Importance

Biodiversity serves as a rich genetic resource for scientific research, biotechnology, and crop improvement. Wild relatives of crops and indigenous livestock breeds help develop disease-resistant, climate-resilient, and high-yielding varieties, thereby strengthening food and nutritional security.

Social, Cultural and Ethical Importance

Many plant and animal species hold religious, cultural, and traditional significance in India. Biodiversity supports indigenous knowledge systems, cultural heritage, and ecotourism. Ethically, every species has an inherent right to exist, making Biodiversity Conservation a collective responsibility of present and future generations.

Role in Sustainable Development

Biodiversity is fundamental to achieving sustainable development by ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources and maintaining ecosystem services. It contributes directly to climate change mitigation and adaptation, disaster risk reduction, poverty alleviation, and the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 14 (Life Below Water) and SDG 15 (Life on Land).

5. Threats to Biodiversity

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

Habitat destruction is the largest driver of biodiversity loss worldwide. Rapid urbanisation, industrialisation, mining, infrastructure development, agricultural expansion, and deforestation reduce and fragment natural habitats, threatening the survival of numerous species. According to the FAO Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, the world lost around 420 million hectares of forest between 1990 and 2020 due to land-use changes. In India, infrastructure expansion in ecologically sensitive areas has increased habitat fragmentation, affecting flagship species such as the tiger, elephant, and Great Indian Bustard.

Overexploitation of Biological Resources

Unsustainable exploitation of forests, fisheries, wildlife, and medicinal plants has pushed many species towards extinction. Excessive hunting, overfishing, illegal logging, and unregulated harvesting reduce species populations faster than they can naturally recover. According to the IPBES Global Assessment Report (2019), overexploitation is the second-largest driver of global biodiversity loss. India has strengthened wildlife protection through the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, yet illegal extraction of forest produce and wildlife trafficking continue to pose serious challenges.

Invasive Alien Species (IAS)

Invasive alien species are non-native organisms that spread rapidly and outcompete native flora and fauna, disrupting ecosystem balance. The IPBES Invasive Alien Species Assessment Report (2023) estimates that more than 37,000 alien species have been introduced globally, of which over 3,500 are invasive, causing annual economic losses exceeding US$423 billion. In India, species such as Lantana camara, Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Parthenium hysterophorus (Congress grass), and Prosopis juliflora have severely affected forests, wetlands, and agricultural ecosystems.

Pollution

Air, water, soil, plastic, and chemical pollution significantly degrade ecosystems and threaten Biodiversity. Excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers contaminates soil and water bodies, while plastic waste harms terrestrial and marine organisms. According to the UNEP, nearly 11 million tonnes of plastic enter oceans every year, adversely affecting marine biodiversity. Nutrient pollution also leads to eutrophication of lakes and rivers, causing fish mortality and loss of aquatic biodiversity.

Climate Change

Climate change is emerging as one of the most significant long-term Threats to Biodiversity. Rising temperatures, changing rainfall patterns, melting glaciers, ocean acidification, and extreme weather events alter habitats and species distribution. According to the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report (AR6), nearly 3.3–3.6 billion people live in regions highly vulnerable to climate change, while thousands of plant and animal species face an increased risk of extinction. In India, Himalayan ecosystems, coral reefs, mangroves such as the Sundarbans, and alpine biodiversity are particularly vulnerable to climate-induced changes.

Poaching and Illegal Wildlife Trade

Illegal hunting and wildlife trafficking have caused sharp declines in populations of several endangered species. Animals are poached for ivory, skins, horns, meat, traditional medicines, and the exotic pet trade. According to the UN Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), wildlife trafficking is among the world’s most lucrative illegal trades. India has intensified anti-poaching measures through Project Tiger, Project Elephant, wildlife crime control agencies, and enhanced surveillance, yet illegal trade remains a persistent threat.

Human-Wildlife Conflict

Expansion of human settlements, agriculture, roads, and industries into forested areas has increased encounters between humans and wildlife. Crop damage, livestock depredation, and attacks on humans often result in retaliatory killings of wild animals. According to the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), hundreds of human and elephant deaths occur annually due to human-elephant conflict in India. Effective habitat management, wildlife corridors, and community participation are essential to reducing such conflicts.

6. Biodiversity Conservation

In-situ Conservation

In-situ conservation involves protecting species within their natural habitats, enabling them to survive and evolve under natural conditions. India has established a vast network of protected areas comprising over 1,000 Protected Areas, including 106 National Parks, 573 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 115 Conservation Reserves and 220 Community Reserves (2025). The country also has 18 Biosphere Reserves, of which 12 are included in UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves. Flagship programmes such as Project Tiger, Project Elephant, and Project Snow Leopard strengthen in-situ conservation.

Ex-situ Conservation

Ex-situ conservation refers to the protection of threatened species outside their natural habitats through zoos, botanical gardens, seed banks, gene banks, tissue culture, cryopreservation, and captive breeding programmes. India has 150+ recognised zoological parks regulated by the Central Zoo Authority (CZA) and several national gene banks managed by ICAR-NBPGR for conserving crop genetic resources. Successful examples include captive breeding of the Gharial, Red Panda, and White Tiger.

Community-based Conservation

Local communities, indigenous people, and village institutions play a vital role in Biodiversity Conservation through sustainable resource management. Community participation is promoted through Joint Forest Management (JFM), Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) under the Biological Diversity Act, 2002, and People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs). Community-led initiatives such as the Chipko Movement, Sacred Groves, and conservation by local communities in the Western Ghats and Northeast India demonstrate the effectiveness of participatory conservation.

Role of Science and Technology in Biodiversity Conservation

Modern technologies have significantly improved biodiversity monitoring and conservation. Remote Sensing, GIS, GPS, drones, camera traps, satellite imagery, environmental DNA (eDNA), Artificial Intelligence (AI), and bioacoustics are widely used for habitat mapping, wildlife population estimation, anti-poaching surveillance, and early detection of invasive species. India employs these technologies in tiger estimation, elephant corridor mapping, forest fire monitoring, and biodiversity assessment, making conservation efforts more scientific, accurate, and efficient.

7. Biodiversity Conservation Initiatives

(i) Global Initiatives

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992

• Adopted at the Rio Earth Summit (1992) and entered into force in 1993.
• Has 196 Parties, making it one of the most widely accepted environmental conventions.
• Three objectives:
  • Conservation of biodiversity.
  • Sustainable use of biological resources.
  • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources (Access and Benefit Sharing).

Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2000)

• Came into force in 2003 under the CBD.
• Regulates the safe transfer, handling and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs) resulting from modern biotechnology.

Nagoya Protocol (2010)

• Entered into force in 2014.
• Establishes an international framework for Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge.

Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (2022)

• Adopted during CBD COP-15 (Montreal).
• Sets 23 global targets to be achieved by 2030 and 4 long-term goals for 2050.
• Includes the globally recognised 30×30 Target—protecting 30% of the world’s land and oceans by 2030.

(ii) India’s Biodiversity Conservation Initiatives

Constitutional Provisions

• Article 48A directs the State to protect and improve the environment and safeguard forests and wildlife.
• Article 51A(g) makes it a Fundamental Duty of every citizen to protect the natural environment, including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife.
• Forests and wildlife are placed in the Concurrent List (42nd Constitutional Amendment, 1976), enabling both the Centre and States to legislate.

Biological Diversity Act, 2002

• Enacted to implement the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
• Promotes conservation, sustainable use of biological resources, and equitable sharing of benefits.
• Amended through the Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023 to facilitate research, promote the AYUSH sector, simplify compliance, and strengthen benefit-sharing mechanisms.

Institutional Framework

• National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) established in 2003 at Chennai.
• State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs) established in all States and Union Territories.
• Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) constituted at local body levels.
• More than 2.7 lakh Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) have been constituted across India, preparing People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) documenting local biodiversity and traditional knowledge.

Protected Area Network

India has one of the largest protected area networks in the world.

• 106 National Parks
• 573 Wildlife Sanctuaries
• 18 Biosphere Reserves
• 115 Conservation Reserves
• 220 Community Reserves
• 58 Tiger Reserves covering about 82,800 sq. km, nearly 2.5% of India’s geographical area (2025).

Protected areas now cover approximately 5.3% of India’s geographical area, providing habitats for thousands of plant and animal species.

Species Conservation Programmes

The Government has launched several flagship programmes for threatened species.

• Project Tiger (1973) – India now supports about 75% of the world’s wild tiger population, with 3,682 tigers (All India Tiger Estimation, 2022).
• Project Elephant (1992) – Conserves over 30,000 wild Asian elephants, the largest population in the world.
• Project Snow Leopard (2009) – Focuses on conservation in the Himalayan ecosystem.
• Project Dolphin (2020) – Conserves the Gangetic Dolphin, India’s National Aquatic Animal.
• Species Recovery Programme under the Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH) supports conservation of critically endangered species such as the Great Indian Bustard, Hangul, Vultures and Dugongs.

National Missions and Programmes

• National Mission for Green India (Green India Mission) aims to restore and improve forest and tree cover.
• National Afforestation Programme (NAP) promotes ecological restoration of degraded forests.
• CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority) finances afforestation using compensatory funds collected for diversion of forest land.
• MISHTI (Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes) launched in 2023 to expand and restore mangrove ecosystems.
• Amrit Dharohar Scheme (2023) promotes conservation and sustainable use of Ramsar Sites through community participation.

International Recognition of India’s Conservation Efforts

• India has 91 Ramsar Sites (2025), the highest in Asia.
• 12 Biosphere Reserves are included in UNESCO’s World Network of Biosphere Reserves.
• India is home to 4 Global Biodiversity Hotspots.
• India has become a global leader in tiger conservation, Asian elephant conservation, and community-based biodiversity management.

8. Recent Developments in Biodiversity

Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF), 2022

• Adopted at CBD COP-15 in Montreal, Canada.
• Replaces the Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011–2020).
• Contains 4 long-term goals (2050) and 23 action targets (2030).
• Introduced the 30×30 Target—protect 30% of global land and marine areas by 2030.
• Calls for restoration of 30% of degraded ecosystems by 2030.

India’s Updated National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (NBSAP)

• Prepared under the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).
• Aligns India’s biodiversity goals with the Kunming–Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework.
• Focuses on ecosystem restoration, sustainable use of biological resources, and community participation.
• Supports integration of Biodiversity Conservation into agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and urban planning.

People’s Biodiversity Registers (PBRs)

• Prepared by Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) under the Biological Diversity Act.
• Document local biodiversity, traditional knowledge, and biological resources.
• More than 2.7 lakh BMCs have been constituted across India.
• PBRs help in conservation planning and benefit-sharing with local communities.

Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act, 2023

• Amended the Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
• Simplifies access to biological resources for research and innovation.
• Promotes the AYUSH sector and Indian traditional medicine.
• Strengthens the Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) mechanism.
• Balances biodiversity conservation with ease of doing research and business.

Technology-driven Biodiversity Conservation

• Increasing use of Artificial Intelligence (AI), GIS, Remote Sensing, drones, camera traps, satellite imagery, and environmental DNA (eDNA).
• AI is used for wildlife identification and anti-poaching surveillance.
• Drones monitor forests, wetlands, and mangrove ecosystems.
• eDNA enables detection of rare and endangered aquatic species without physical capture.
• Digital technologies have improved biodiversity mapping, habitat monitoring, and wildlife population estimation.

9. Challenges in Biodiversity Conservation

• Rapid urbanisation and infrastructure development continue to fragment natural habitats, threatening wildlife corridors and ecosystem connectivity.
• Weak enforcement of environmental laws, illegal wildlife trade, and poaching remain major obstacles despite a robust legal framework.
• Climate change is altering species distribution, increasing the frequency of forest fires, floods, droughts, and coral bleaching, thereby accelerating biodiversity loss.
• Invasive alien species, pollution, and unsustainable exploitation of natural resources degrade ecosystems and reduce native species populations.
• Human-wildlife conflict, inadequate financial resources, limited scientific data, and low public awareness hinder effective Biodiversity Conservation and community participation.

10. Conclusion

Biodiversity is the foundation of ecological security, economic prosperity, and sustainable development. As one of the world’s 17 megadiverse countries, India has a special responsibility to conserve its rich biological heritage while balancing developmental needs. Strengthening scientific conservation, community participation, technological interventions, and effective policy implementation will be crucial for achieving national conservation goals and fulfilling global commitments.

Protecting Biodiversity today is essential for ensuring ecological resilience, food security, climate stability, and the well-being of future generations. Effective Biodiversity Conservation requires coordinated efforts by governments, local communities, scientific institutions, and citizens to address the growing Threats to Biodiversity and ensure the sustainable use of biological resources.

BPSC Mains Practice Questions

1. What is biodiversity? Discuss the different levels of biodiversity and explain its ecological, economic and social significance.
2. Examine the major threats to biodiversity in India and discuss the key measures adopted for biodiversity conservation at the global and national levels.

Learn More About Biodiversity

For official information on Biodiversity Conservation, conventions, protected areas, and India’s biodiversity initiatives, visit the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA), Government of India: National Biodiversity Authority (NBA)